The Human Intermediary
Users' Perception of the Role of Mediators
Product- vs. Process-oriented Mediation
Reference Services
Instruction
Intervention in the Process of Information Seeking: The Reference Interview
Literacy
Gatekeeping II
Professional Ethics
Bibliography

The Human Intermediary

Users' Perception of the Role of Mediators

Kuhlthau (1993: ch. 8) points out, as have many other researchers, that when people are going about their problem-solving, they usually do not think of formal mediators -- such as librarians and other information professionals -- as playing much, if any, role in their information search. Formal mediators are often seen as a source to turn to only as a last resort, when all else has failed. Informal mediators, on the other hand, -- friends, colleagues, and family -- are frequently used.

There are no doubt many reasons for this sad fact. Information professionals often appear to the user to be too busy or preoccupied with "important" matters to be approached with what the user may perceive to be their "simple" or "insignificant" or "silly" need. The user may assume that the search "should" be simple and easy and that, by acknowledging their confusion and doubt, they will appear stupid. They may have had nasty prior experiences with information specialists who were not user-friendly. Etc.

Our cultural models seem to great different kinds of expectations for information specialists than for other kinds of service providers, such as store clerks. Many of us have no difficulty in going up to store personnel when we cannot find what we are looking for, but shy away from demanding the same level of service from librarians. Some of you may have found your clients surprised that someone for "library school" would be out of the library, and interested more in them than in books!

Product- vs. Process-oriented Mediation

Kuhlthau notes that librarians tend to approach the service encounter with a focus on "product"(information sources) rather than on "process" (problem-solving). "Information-related [i.e., product-focused] mediation assists with access to information.  Process-related [i.e., process-focused] mediation assists with learning from the use of information." (p. 134). It is the focus on product, or sources which is, according to Kuhlthau, one of the chief obstacles to providing better service in information centers.
 

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Reference Services

Users need "mediation addressing [both] access to sources and guidance in process. (p. 133). They need help not only with locating sources, but with carrying out the usually complex and always creative cognitive work that is required in order to find and use information to solve problems in a way that takes the problem's context into account.

Levels of Mediation (from Kuhlthau 1993, p. 138)

Organizer

Here, the role of the information specialist is to collect and organize sources. No intervention in the search process is provided. Access to the collection is through a self-service search, with only technological assistance.

This type of mediation is based on the "certainty" principle rather than the "uncertainty" principle we discussed earlier. Users bring a problem topic to the information session and only has to match documents in the collection with this topic. If there is topical relevance, the search is a success.
This form of mediation is suited to the later stages of the information search, when the user has a well-defined and focused problem statement, but not in the early stages.

Locator

This form of mediation underlies Ready Reference service, where a single fact or item search is conducted and the answer or the source is provided. Several sources may be mentioned, but in no particular order. It is assumed that questions are simple, and that there is one right answer to it. The model for this kind of encounter is "user asks a question and the information specialist either finds the answer or suggests some source(s) which might contain the answer". E.g., "What is Marlon Brando's address?"

This form of mediation is effective for simple, straightforward, single-issue questions, and for specific questions in the later stages of the search process.

Other types of reference service in this category are:

Bibliographic Verification -- The information specialist searches printed or electronic versions of standard bibliographic tools to verify that the user's information about a document is correct and complete.

• Interlibrary Loan and Document Delivery Services
• Information and Referral Services -- The information specialist identifies community resources and agencies that can provide services or information the information center does not possess (Bopp 1995).
 
Much of the assessment of reference service in libraries is based on this model, e.g., number of questions answered, accuracy of answers, etc.

Identifier

This is the model underlying most discussions of Standard Reference interviews. Here, questions are assumed to be more extensive than at levels 1 and 2.

"When the user comes to the collection with a general topic, seeking information from a number of sources, one comprehensive search is conducted and a 'pile' of information is identified as relevant to the general topic without consideration for the users' particular point of view, level of knowledge, or state in the process. The information is identified usually without any advice on approach or any suggestion of continuing dialogue with the mediator." (Kuhlthau 1993: 141).
Identifiers "often mislead users into thinking information seeking is merely identifying sources and not interpreting them. Users tend to think that they are the only ones experiencing confusion because the certainty of the system is predominant in the Identifier's approach. Users are also misled into thinking that the search process does not require exploring and formulating or that the mere collecting of sources on the general topic is sufficient for understanding and presenting." (p. 141)   Identifiers often overload users with too many sources.

Advisor

The advisor guides users through a sequence of sources on a particular topic or problem, indicating sources but also suggesting a sequence for using the sources.  The advisor is still source-centered rather than process-centered. S/he takes into account that information seeking is a process, but does not treat the process as a creative, constructive one. One sequence of sources is recommended for all. This can mislead users into thinking that there is one right search for all, no matter what they encounter in their interpretations of sources.

Counselor

The counselor provides intervention in the user's search process, entering into a dialogue with the user rather than a simpler "interview". The counselor communicates to the user that information seeking is a creative process which is unique for each person. There is no perfect search method.
The counselor also communicates that information seeking is also not a linear process but dynamic, changing with the changing context of the user's knowledge, understanding and goals. Because of this dynamism, mediation cannot be accomplished in one session. Since the counselor's advice must be based on the user's changing knowledge states and goals, the counselor and client must meet throughout the search.
Counseling is especially important during the early phases of the information search, prior to Collection.

Customizer

Bopp (1995) discusses two additional forms of reference service:
 
• Selective Dissemination of Information (SDI). The patron describes an ongoing information need, and, based on this profile, the information specialist delivers information to the patron on a regular basis. This information may range from Tables of contents from selected journals to data base searches and reports of current trends on some topic.
• Information brokering. The specialist gathers, evaluates, and packages information for the client for a fee. Rather than just pointing to the existence of information sources, they deliver either the documents themselves or analytical abstracts or summaries based on a reading of a number of printed or online sources.

Instruction

Levels of Instruction

Another form of mediation in information-seeking is education. Kuhlthau (1993) outlines five levels of education:

Organizer

No instruction is provided; self-service searchers are expected. Example: printed instructions and handouts; "point-of-use" materials; pathfinders; workbooks; computer-assisted instruction.  "The primary goal of library instruction according to the American Library Association...Council policy statement is to develop 'independent information retrieval'...The underlying principle of traditional instruction is the concept that users can be taught to rely on the Organizer level of intervention."
However, "Traditional source-oriented instruction has fallen woefully short of expectations for developing independence in using libraries and information." (Kuhlthau 1993: 147-8).

Lecturer

Orienting instruction:  Single orientation sessions are provided, during which an overview of services, policies, location and collection is provided. No specific problem is dealt with.
Example: SLIS orientation sessions at the beginning of the semester.

Instructor

Single-source instruction: A variety of independent sessions are provided, each with instruction about how to use a single source to address a specific problem.  Example: Workshops in using a particular type of library automation or software

Tutor

Strategy instruction: A series of sessions is provided, with instruction on a sequence of sources to address a specific problem or assignment. Tutors help users understand the relationship between sources. However, the reasoning process that underlies independent research is not developed.
Example: Information specialists work along with corporate training units to provide support for training sessions. Example:  School media specialists' assistance with coursework, where the course content and learning objectives are set by the teacher, not the media specialist.

Counselor

Process instruction: Holistic interaction with the user is provided over time, with instruction on identifying and interpreting information to address an evolving problem. The Counselor is a partner in the implementation of the educational plan.  Counseling goes beyond location of materials to the interpretation and use of information. Helps students learn how to learn in the information center.
Counseling empowers users by enabling them to recognize their need for intervention in information seeking and to request a level of mediation appropriate to meet that need.  Example: The information specialist is a partner with training personnel in setting goals and objectives, designing methods and activities, and establishing the means of evaluation.
 

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Intervention in the Process of Information Seeking: The Reference Interview

1 - Prior to the Interview

Taylor (1968), like Kuhlthau, notes that the information search process actually begins with vague, unverbalized and unverbalizable recognition that a problem exists. Gradually some kind of verbal representation of the problem emerges, and the user begins to identify possible formal information resources that may be available to solve the problem
 

2 - Beginning the Interview

The negotiation with an information specialist thus begins after the search has already begun. The negotiation begins when a user produces a compromised need, the question as presented to the information specialist or the system. Taylor uses the term compromised because the statement of need which launches the reference interview is the result of the user having to make an explicit statement about what s/he does not know -- a difficult task indeed!

Ingwersen (1982) notes that, in communication between librarian and patron, both parties bring to the interaction a complex set of images of one another and of the store of knowledge available in the library. His discussion of this communication process can be applied to a wide range of interventions between information specialists and information users.

The patron's model of the collection and the information specialist can often lead to poor results. S/he may anticipate that s/he needs to produce a statement of his or her information need in formal terms, or those that the specialist will understand.  Doing so produces what Ingwersen calls a labeling effect. The patron offers up a "label" for their need (usually a label of a knowledge category), based on how the patron imagines the specialist categorizes information.  This label, which may be a poor representation of the user's need, may mislead the specialist into assuming that s/he understands the user's need.
 

3 - Understanding the Need

The specialist anticipates that s/he must understand the user's need without regard for document organization and representation before helping to translate that need into terms which the information system can accommodate. This process involves, among other things, classifying the user's problem in two ways:

• Categorial classification -- What abstract class of knowledge is needed?  For example, if the patron comes in asking for information about "cats", the specialist needs to discover what kind of information about cats is needed: wild cats? domesticated cats? fictional cats? behavior of cats? anatomy of cats? etc.


Because of their training in the categorization scheme of the information system (based on the aboutness of documents we discussed last week), information specialists are usually quick to apply categorial classification to the understanding of the user's problem. Unfortunately, this can often lead to the problem noted above, where the specialist jumps to the Collection phase of an information search before a complete understanding of the patron's need is ascertained.

Research shows that reference librarians often jump directly to identifying specific resources to match a patron's term rather than engaging n a real dialogue in order to explore the need hidden behind the term you used. (If you don't believe it, try it with two or three reference librarians and see what happens!)

• Situational classification -- What classes of scripts or concrete situations are involved? For example, is the patron interested in the behavior of cats because s/he wants to train her pet cat to do something? And, if so, at what stage is the patron in this training process? What kind of time does the patron have for learning about training cats? What kind of information searching has already been done, and with what results?


Information specialists are less likely to apply situational classification because they receive far less training in this kind of analysis and because contemporary information systems are less likely to organize materials in terms of situational classification (the for-ness we discussed last week). Yet situational classification is critical in providing good service.

Open vs. closed questions in the interview -- Open questions are ones which allow the patron to define what kind of answer is called for. In answer to the needs statement "I need to find out something about cats", for instance, "What is it about cats that you need to know?" is an open question which enables the patron to reply with any category of information about cats that is appropriate. "Do you need to know about cat behavior or cat anatomy?" or "Do you need to know about cat behavior?" are closed questions, because they greatly restrict the kinds of answers the patron can give ("behavior" or "anatomy", for the first, or "yes" or "no", for the second), while the patron may actually be thinking about the musical "Cats".

While open questions are preferable for diagnosing a patron's need, Ingwersen's research (1982) shows that they are, unfortunately somewhat rare in reference interviews. He found that the use of closed questions correlated with librarians' feelings of confidence about their knowledge of a subject domain. The less confidence they had, the more likely they were to use closed questions.  Leading closed questions, such as "Does this article appear to be useful to you for training your cat?", may be used, during moments in the interview when the information specialist needs to confirm information before moving on to the next phase of the interview.

Information specialists should try to establish a symmetrical as opposed to an asymmetrical relationship with the patron. By giving the patron more control over the interview, open questions help create a symmetrical relationship. Avoiding questions that begin with "Can you...?" and "Why do you...?" also help to do this. Avoiding the pitfall of jumping directly into the Collection phase of the search also communicates to the patron that the specialist really wants to understand the uniqueness of their need and suit their assistance to their particular situation rather than just supplying standardized information which may not exactly fit the user's problem.

4 - Development of a Search Profile - Topic Analysis

The intermediary begins to match his/her knowledge of the user's need with knowledge of the information objects in the collection. Let's say that, in our example, the librarian has learned that the class of animals the patron is interested in is domesticated cats (pets) and the class of activities she is interested in is how to train the cat to walk on a leash.  She has already been trying to do this training, but with not luck, and the cat is beginning to show signs of neurotic behavior in response to the unwanted behavior modification.  The intermediary can now tentatively determine that there seems to be a relation between the patron's information need and two topics covered in the library's collections:  1)  training of pets (specifically, cats); and 2) treating behavioral problems of domesticated cats.
 

5 - Choice of tools

The intermediary has also learned, through situational classification, that the patron does not have a lot of time to read about these topics, and in any case prefers listening and watching someone training a cat rather than reading.  The intermediary thus might suggest a training videotape from the AV collection, at least for the training topic.  He might also suggest information from the Local community information resources of the library, or local web sites, in order to put the patron in touch with local intermediaries who have specialized information about cats (vets, trainers, pet owner support groups, etc.).  This second set of tools would also help with the behavioral problem, so it is suggested to the patron.

6- Looking up

The intermediary and the patron use the tools (catalogs, files, Internet, etc.) to look for information about the topics.  If possible, the patron should be involved in this process, as the definition of the need may change as the patron explores the information that is available.  In our example, they consult the online catalog, which includes AV materials, vertical files, which include local community information, and the World Wide Web, searching for local web sites about cats.

7- Judgment based on index terms

The information source, if part of a formal system, will likely involve index terms as signposts pointing to the location of information about different topics.  At this stage, the intermediary helps the patron translate between the topic labels that are being used to describe the needs and the controlled vocabulary used in the indices.  The definition of the need might change at this stage, sending them back to earlier steps.  (It's not a strictly linear process, as we have discussed before.)

8-  Judgment based on descriptions, abstracts, titles

Following leads in the index, the intermediary and patron access more substantial representations of the information objects such as titles, abstracts, pictures, Tables of Content, etc.  Again, they make a selection of which objects seem most relevant to the users' needs.  Again, the definition of the need might change at this stage, sending them back to earlier steps.

9 - Evaluation of the information objects themselves

Based on the representations of the information objects, the intermediary and patron actually retrieve some of the objects which seem to be most relevant to the needs of the patron.  The patron is now able to evaluate the object itself to determine its relevance.  (Ah, the Collection Phase at last!) Both intermediary and user should be prepared to loop back to a redefinition of the need as the context of the search changes with added information.

10 - Confirmation that the information provided meets the user's need

The intermediary should ascertain, from the user, that the information obtained is, in effect, useful in serving the user's need.  By now the patron might be feeling quite obliged to the intermediary for all their help.  S/he should be assured that the intermediary really does want to know that the information can be put to use and will assist until that level of satisfaction has been met, even if this may entail a number of sessions.  Getting "stuff" in the patron's hands is not a sign of a successful service encounter!

11 - Offer to help user apply the information to satisfying the need.

The intermediary should indicate his or her willingness to continue the partnership with the user as the latter applies the information to solving the problem.

Literacy

Information Literacy

McClure (1994: 118) calls for libraries and other information centers to engage in the battle to combat what he calls information illiteracy, which increasingly threatens to undermine U.S. society. To be information literate means that an individual can find and use the information necessary for the kinds of problem solving needed to survive in today's information-rich environment and to participate fully and intelligently in democratic decision-making.
Information literacy involves four interdependent forms of literacy:

• Traditional literacy -- A White House study in 1991 found that as many as 23 million adult Americans are functionally illiterate, and another 35 million semiliterate (lacking skills beyond the eighth grade level). All other forms of literacy depend on traditional literacy, where a literate person can read and write, preferably at a minimum of a 12th-grade level.

• Media literacy -- A media literate person can decode, evaluate, analyze and produce both print and electronic media.

• Computer literacy -- A computer literate person can operate computer, telecommunication, and related information technologies.

• Network literacy -- A network literate person can locate, process, exchange and use information in a networked environment.

These definitions of literacy involve both the reception and production of information. We expect people to be able to write as well as to read, although we do not expect everyone to be a novelist or essayist. How far do you think that our society should we go in extending production skills to electronic media, technology and networks?  Should we all be able to create home pages? Java scripts? spreadsheets? data bases? TV shows? digital libraries?

The organization in which you work as an information professional will have to make policy decisions about these issues, although some organizations do so tacitly by "doing things like they've always been done" or by claiming "no money!" every time someone suggests that perhaps a higher level of service might be aimed at.  Know how you feel about these issues and, when looking for a job, try to find an institution which has goals compatible with your own.

Gatekeeping II

Professional Ethics

Under this set of guidelines, the current Code of Ethics of the American Library Association is incomplete. Finks suggests the following guidelines for a new Code:

"The function of librarians is to optimize the value of recorded information for humankind. To achieve this objective, the following prescriptions of conduct should be adhered to:

1) Librarians should exercise their best occupational judgment on behalf of library users. They should therefore:

• Not merely comply with requests, but try to anticipate them.
• Not merely supply what is requested, but rather what is needed.
• Not disclose information obtained during confidential communications, except when disclosure to the appropriate authority is clearly in the public interest.

• Become and remain active members of the local and national occupational association.
• Attempt to improve their knowledge and qualifications, and those of supportive personnel.
• Undertake research or at least apply research results in their libraries.

• Do everything that can reasonable be expected to satisfy a library user.
• Seek expert assistance whenever necessary.
• Give reliable information, i.e., the best traceable or available.

• Comply with all legal prescriptions.
• Adhere to the generally accepted moral standards of the communities in which they live and work.
• Observe good manners and occupational etiquette.

• Regard the library occupation as their first concern.
• Act with great caution in ideological matters.
• Use their leisure time to the benefit and not to the detriment of their occupation.

• Instruct fellow workers upon entrance in the occupation on these guidelines and periodically in their official interpretations.
• Bring reputed misconduct to the attention of the Committee on Occupational Conduct.
• Assist the Committee on Occupational conduct in obtaining all relevant information and in enforcing disciplinary action.

• Ensure the free flow of information between libraries.
• Allow access to the library's holdings and services to everyone in need of information.
• Avoid bias in the acquisition and presentation of information.

• The survival of information sources that are impossible or very difficult to replace is not endangered.
• Transgression on the field of operation of other occupations does not take place.
• The freedom allowed is not misused to curtail the freedom of others. (Bopp 1991: 87)

Bibliography

Buckland, M. K. (1991) Systems & Access to information, chs. 3 & 8 in Information and Information Systems, pp. 27-37, 77-80. New York: Praeger.

Bunge, C. A. (1984) Interpersonal dimensions of the reference interview: A historical review of the literature. Drexel Library Quarterly 20 (Spring): 4-23.

Drake, C. S. (1992) Museums in the community -- An education resource. Museum 173(1): 96-99.

Finks, Lee W. (1991) Librarianship needs a new code of professional ethics. American Libraries January: 84-92.

Ingwersen, Peter (1982) Search procedures in the library - Analyzed from the cognitive point of view. Journal of Documentation 38 (3): 154-191.

Katz, W. A. (1992) The reference process & The reference interview, chs. 1 & 3 in Introduction to Reference Work v. 1, pp 3-32 & v.2, pp. 45-64. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Kuhlthau, Carol C. (1993) Roles of mediators in the process of information seeking & Intervention into the process of information seeking, chs. 8 & 9 in Seeking Meaning. A Process Approach to Library and Information Services, pp. 128-167. Norwood, NJ: Ablex.

McClure, C. R. (1994) Network literacy: A role for libraries? Information Technology and Libraries 13(2): 115-125.

Metoyer-Duran, Cheryl (1993) Information gatekeepers. ARIST 28: 111-150.

Myers, Judy E. (1994) Reference services in the virtual library. American Libraries July/August: 634-638.

Rugge, S. and A. Glossbrenner (1993) What is an information broker? & Pros and cons of the information business , chs. 2 & 3 in The Information Broker's Handbook, pp. 15-30; 31-44. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Sutton, E. D. and Edmonds-Holt, L. (1995) The reference interview, in R. E. Bopp and L. Smith (eds.), Reference and information services: An introduction, pp. 36-54. Englewood, CO: Libraries Unlimited.

Taylor, Robert S. (1968) Question-negotiation and information seeking in libraries. College and Research Libraries 29(3): 178-94.

Wilson, L. A. (1995) Instruction as a reference service, ch. 6 in R. E. Bopp & L. Smith (eds.), Reference and Information Services: An Introduction, pp. 152-184. Englewood, CO: Libraries Unlimited.

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